Linux

Ubuntu is one of the most popular Linux distributions, renowned for its ease of use, extensive community support, and frequent updates. While the core of Ubuntu remains consistent, the desktop environment—what users interact with visually—can vary. Two prominent options for Ubuntu users are Unity and GNOME. Each offers a distinct experience with unique design philosophies, features, and workflows.

Whether you're a seasoned Linux user or a curious newcomer, understanding the differences between Unity and GNOME can help you tailor your Ubuntu setup to better suit your needs. This article explores both environments to help you make an informed choice.

A Tale of Two Desktops: History and Evolution

Unity was first introduced by Canonical in 2010 with the release of Ubuntu 10.10 Netbook Edition. It was developed to create a consistent user experience across desktop and mobile devices, long before convergence became a buzzword.

Unity became Ubuntu’s default desktop starting with Ubuntu 11.04. Its vertical launcher, global menu, and Dash search aimed to improve efficiency and streamline user interaction. However, despite its innovation, Unity had its critics. Performance issues on lower-end hardware and resistance to change from GNOME users caused friction in the community.

In 2017, Canonical made the unexpected decision to abandon Unity development and return to GNOME, starting with Ubuntu 17.10. But Unity didn’t disappear—it was adopted by the open source community and lives on in the form of Ubuntu Unity, an official Ubuntu flavor.

GNOME is one of the oldest and most respected desktop environments in the Linux ecosystem. Launched in 1999, it focuses on simplicity, accessibility, and ease of use. The release of GNOME 3 in 2011 marked a major redesign, introducing GNOME Shell, which departed from the traditional desktop metaphor in favor of a more modern and minimal interface.

GNOME became the default Ubuntu desktop again in 2017 and has since seen continuous refinement. With support from major distributions like Fedora, Debian, and Ubuntu, GNOME enjoys a broad user base and robust development activity.

Interface Design and User Experience

Unity's interface is distinct and immediately recognizable. Here are some key components:

• Launcher (Dock): Positioned vertically on the left side, the Launcher holds pinned and running applications. It’s space-efficient and easily navigated via mouse or keyboard.

If you're working in a Linux environment, chances are you've encountered environment variables—even if you didn’t realize it at the time. They quietly power much of what goes on behind the scenes in your shell sessions, influencing everything from what shell prompt you see to which programs are available when you type a command. Whether you're an experienced sysadmin or a new Linux user, mastering environment variables is essential for customizing and controlling your shell experience.

In this guide, we'll take a dive into environment variables in the Linux shell. By the end, you'll not only know how to view and set these variables, but also how to persist them, use them in scripts, and troubleshoot issues effectively.

What Are Environment Variables?

At a basic level, environment variables are dynamic named values that affect the behavior of running processes on your Linux system. Think of them as configuration settings that your shell (like Bash or Zsh) and applications refer to in order to understand how they should operate.

For example:

• The PATH variable tells the shell where to look for executable files.

• The HOME variable stores the path to your home directory.

• The LANG variable defines your system’s language and character encoding.

There is an important distinction between shell variables and environment variables:

• Shell variables are local to the shell session in which they are defined.

• Environment variables are shell variables that have been exported, meaning they are inherited by child processes spawned from the shell.

Viewing Environment Variables

Before you can modify or use environment variables, it's important to know how to inspect them.

printenv

or

env

Both commands list environment variables currently set for the session.

echo $HOME

This will display the current user's home directory.

set

This command displays all shell variables and functions. It's broader than printenv.

Setting and Exporting Environment Variables

You can define your own variables or temporarily change existing ones within your shell.

Version control is a fundamental tool in modern software development, enabling teams and individuals to track, manage, and collaborate on projects with confidence. Whether you're working on a simple script or a large-scale application, keeping track of changes, collaborating with others, and rolling back to previous versions are essential aspects of development. Among various version control systems, Git has emerged as the most widely used and trusted tool — especially on Linux, where it integrates seamlessly with the system's workflow.

This guide will walk you through the basics of Git on Linux, explaining what Git is, how to install it, and how to start using it to manage your projects efficiently. Whether you're a new developer or transitioning from another system, this comprehensive introduction will help you get started with Git the right way.

What Is Git and Why Use It?

Git is a distributed version control system (DVCS) originally created by Linus Torvalds in 2005 to support the development of the Linux kernel. It allows developers to keep track of every change made to their source code, collaborate with other developers, and manage different versions of their projects over time.

• Distributed Architecture: Every user has a full copy of the repository, including its history. This means you can work offline and still have full version control capabilities.

• Speed and Efficiency: Git is optimized for performance, handling large repositories and files with ease.

• Branching and Merging: Git makes it easy to create and manage branches, allowing for efficient parallel development and experimentation.

• Integrity and Security: Every change is checksummed and stored securely using SHA-1 hashing, ensuring that your project’s history cannot be tampered with.

Compared to older systems like Subversion (SVN) or CVS, Git offers far greater flexibility and is better suited to both small personal projects and large collaborative efforts.

Installing Git on Linux

Installing Git on Linux is straightforward thanks to package managers available in every major distribution.

sudo apt update sudo apt install git

sudo dnf install git

sudo pacman -S git

After installation, verify it with:

git --version

In the world of Linux, where multi-user systems and server security are foundational principles, understanding file permissions and ownership is crucial. Whether you're a beginner exploring your first Linux distribution or a seasoned system administrator managing critical servers, knowing how permissions work is key to ensuring the integrity, privacy, and functionality of your system.

This guide will take you deep into the core of Linux file permissions and ownership—what they are, how they work, how to modify them, and why they matter.

Why File Permissions and Ownership Matter in Linux

Linux is built from the ground up as a multi-user operating system. This means:

• Multiple users can operate on the same system simultaneously.

• Different users have different levels of access and control.

Without a permissions system, there would be no way to protect files from unauthorized access, modification, or deletion. File permissions and ownership form the first layer of defense against accidental or malicious activity.

Linux Permission Basics: Read, Write, Execute

Each file and directory in Linux has three basic types of permissions:

• Read (r) – Permission to view the contents of a file or list the contents of a directory.

• Write (w) – Permission to modify a file or create, rename, or delete files within a directory.

• Execute (x) – For files, allows execution as a program or script. For directories, allows entering the directory (cd).

Permission Categories: User, Group, Others

Permissions are assigned to three distinct sets of users:

• User (u) – The file's owner.

• Group (g) – A group associated with the file.

• Others (o) – Everyone else.

So for every file or directory, Linux evaluates nine permission bits, forming three sets of rwx, like so:

rwxr-xr--

This breakdown means:

• rwx for the owner

• r-x for the group

• r-- for others

Understanding the Permission String

When you list files with ls -l, you’ll see something like this:

-rwxr-xr-- 1 alice developers 4096 Apr 4 14:00 script.sh

Let’s dissect it:

In Linux, groups play a central role in managing user permissions and access control. Whether you're an experienced system administrator or a curious new user, understanding how to list and analyze group information is a fundamental skill. This guide explores everything you need to know about listing groups in Linux, using a variety of tools and techniques to get exactly the information you need.

What Are Groups in Linux and Why Do They Matter?

Linux is a multi-user operating system, and one of its strengths lies in the fine-grained control it offers over who can do what. Groups are a way to organize users so that multiple people can share access to files, devices, or system privileges.

Each group has:

• A group name

• A Group ID (GID)

• A list of users who are members of the group

• Primary group: Each user has one primary group defined in /etc/passwd. Files the user creates are associated with this group by default.

• Secondary (or supplementary) groups: Users can belong to additional groups, which allow access to other resources.

How to List All Groups on a Linux System

To see every group that exists on the system, you can use the following methods:

getent group

This is the preferred method on modern systems because it queries the system’s name service switch configuration (NSS). It includes local and possibly remote group sources (like LDAP or NIS).

Example output:

sudo:x:27: docker:x:999:user1,user2 developers:x:1001:user3

cat /etc/group

This command prints the content of the /etc/group file, which is the local group database. It’s simple and fast, but it only shows local groups.

Each line is formatted as:

group_name:password_placeholder:GID:user1,user2,...

compgen -g

This command outputs only the group names, which is helpful for scripting or cleaner views.

How to List Groups for a Specific User

You might want to know which groups a particular user belongs to. Here’s how:

groups john

Outputs a space-separated list of groups that john belongs to. If no username is given, it shows groups for the current user.

id alice

For decades, Linux distributions have relied on native packaging formats like DEB and RPM to distribute software. These formats are deeply integrated into the Linux ecosystem, tied closely to the distribution's package manager and system architecture. But over the last few years, two newer technologies—Flatpak and Snap—have emerged, promising a universal packaging model that could revolutionize Linux app distribution.

But are Flatpak and Snap destined to replace native Linux apps entirely? Or are they better seen as complementary solutions addressing long-standing pain points? In this article, we'll explore the origins, benefits, criticisms, adoption trends, and the future of these packaging formats in the Linux world.

Understanding the Packaging Landscape

Traditional Linux software is packaged using system-specific formats. For example:

• .deb for Debian-based systems like Ubuntu and Linux Mint

• .rpm for Red Hat-based systems like Fedora and CentOS

These packages are managed by package managers like apt, dnf, or pacman, depending on the distro. They're tightly integrated with the underlying operating system, often relying on a complex set of shared libraries and system-specific dependencies.

Pros of Native Packaging:

• Smaller package sizes due to shared libraries

• High performance and tight integration

• Established infrastructure and tooling

Cons of Native Packaging:

• Dependency hell: broken packages due to missing or incompatible libraries

• Difficulty in distributing the same app across multiple distros

• Developers must package and test separately for each distro

What Are Flatpak and Snap?

Both Flatpak and Snap aim to solve the distribution problem by allowing developers to package applications once and run them on any major Linux distribution.

• Developed by the GNOME Foundation

• Focus on sandboxing and user privacy

• Applications are installed in user space (no root needed)

• Uses Flathub as the main app repository

Flatpak applications include their own runtime, ensuring that they work consistently across different systems regardless of the host OS's libraries.

• Developed and maintained by Canonical, the makers of Ubuntu

• Focus on universal packaging and transactional updates